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Home / Higgs Natural Farm Fresh Beef & Pork

Higgs Natural Farm Fresh Beef & Pork

  • Journal Listing
  • Nutr J
  • v.9; 2010
  • PMC2846864

A review of fat acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef

Cynthia A Daley

iCollege of Agronomics, California State Academy, Chico, CA, U.s.a.

Amber Abbott

1College of Agronomics, California Country University, Chico, CA, USA

Patrick S Doyle

oneCollege of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, The states

Glenn A Nader

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, United states

Stephanie Larson

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accustomed 2010 Mar 10.

Abstract

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beef products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-based diets tin can significantly improve the fatty acid (FA) limerick and antioxidant content of beef, admitting with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets accept been shown to enhance total conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (C18:2) isomers, trans vaccenic acid (TVA) (C18:i t11), a precursor to CLA, and omega-3 (n-3) FAs on a grand/g fat footing. While the overall concentration of total SFAs is not dissimilar between feeding regimens, grass-finished beef tends toward a higher proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such equally myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies advise that grass-based diets elevate precursors for Vitamin A and Due east, besides equally cancer fighting antioxidants such as glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity every bit compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fatty conscious consumers volition too prefer the overall lower fat content of a grass-fed beef product. Yet, consumers should be aware that the differences in FA content will also requite grass-fed beef a distinct grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In addition, the fat from grass-finished beef may accept a yellowish advent from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). It is also noted that grain-fed beef consumers may achieve similar intakes of both northward-3 and CLA through the consumption of college fat grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

ii. Fat acid profile in grass-fed beef

3. Touch of grass-finishing on omega-iii fat acids

4. Affect of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA)

5. Impact of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

6. Impact of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

seven. Impact of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activeness

8. Impact of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

ix. Conclusion

ten. References

Introduction

At that place is considerable support among the nutritional communities for the nutrition-heart (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the principal cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular illness (CVD) [1]. Health professionals world-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fatty acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the demand to increase intake of due north-3 polyunsaturated fats [ane,two]. Such broad sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fat consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing potent positive correlations between intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a status believed to event from the concomitant rising in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol as SFA intake increases [3,4]. For case, information technology is generally accepted that for every 1% increase in energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increment by ane.3 to 1.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/L) [5-7].

Wide promotion of this correlative data spurred an anti-SFA entrada that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including most animate being proteins such every bit meat, dairy products and eggs over the last 3 decades [8], indicted on their relatively high SFA and cholesterol content. Yet, more than recent lipid research would advise that not all SFAs have the same touch on serum cholesterol. For instance, lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acrid (C14:0), have a greater total cholesterol raising upshot than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral result on the concentration of full serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases total serum cholesterol, although information technology also decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increment in HDL cholesterol [5,7,9]. Thus, the individual fatty acid profiles tend to exist more instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore exist considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Clearly the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; not simply on the way nosotros eat, but also on the mode food is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in creature breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall bacteria beef product[ten]. Preliminary examination of diets containing today'south bacteria beef has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a three ounce portion devoid of all external fat [11]. O'Dea's piece of work was the first of several studies to show today's bacteria beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing risk of CVD [12-15].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers have also altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beef produced until the 1940'southward was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950's, considerable research was done to meliorate the efficiency of beef production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where high energy grains are fed to cattle as means to decrease days on feed and improve marbling (intramuscular fatty: IMF). In add-on, U.S. consumers have grown accepted to the sense of taste of grain-fed beef, mostly preferring the flavor and overall palatability afforded past the higher energy grain ration[16]. Notwithstanding, changes in consumer need, coupled with new enquiry on the upshot of feed on food content, have a number of producers returning to the pastoral arroyo to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning iii decades suggests that grass-only diets tin can significantly change the fatty acrid composition and amend the overall antioxidant content of beefiness. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the data currently available to substantiate an enhanced nutrient claim for grass-fed beef products likewise as to talk over the furnishings these specific nutrients have on human health.

Review of fatty acid profiles in grass-fed beefiness

Ruby-red meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is food dense and regarded equally an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B6, B12, D, Eastward, and minerals, including iron, zinc and selenium [17,eighteen]. Forth with these important nutrients, meat consumers too ingest a number of fats which are an of import source of energy and facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, Due east and 1000. According to the ADA, animal fats contribute approximately threescore% of the SFA in the American nutrition, most of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acrid has been shown to take no net touch on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,19]. In addition, thirty% of the FA content in conventionally produced beef is composed of oleic acrid (C18:1) [20], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering effect among other healthful attributes including a reduced risk of stroke and a significant decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in susceptible populations [21].

Exist that as it may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle can alter the lipid profile in such a way every bit to improve upon this nutritional package. Although at that place are genetic, age related and gender differences among the diverse meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the upshot of beast nutrition is quite pregnant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, historic period, species or geographic location, directly contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acid profile and antioxidant content constitute in the lipid depots and body tissues [22-24].

Table ​ 1 summarizes the saturated fat acid assay for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This tabular array is limited to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin middle), thereby standardizing the contrasts to like cuts within the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between 20 and 30 months of age. Unfortunately, non all studies report data in similar units of mensurate (i.e., one thousand/g of fatty acid), then direct comparisons between studies are not possible.

Table 1

Comparison of mean saturated fatty acid composition (expressed as mg/g of fatty acid or as a % of total lipid) betwixt grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acid
Author, publication year, breed, treatment C12:0 lauric C14:0 myristic C16:0 palmitic C18:0 stearic C20:0 arachidic Total SFA (units as specified) Total lipid (units as specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers g/100 g lipid
 Grass 0.05 1.24* 18.42* 17.54* 0.25* 38.76 9.76* mg/yard musculus
 Grain 0.06 1.84* xx.79* fourteen.96* 0.19* 39.27 thirteen.03* mg/g muscle
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle yard/100 m lipid
 Grass 0.05 2.84* 26.ix 17.0* 0.13* 48.eight* ii.8* % of musculus
 Grain 0.07 three.45* 26.3 13.2* 0.08* 45.one* 4.4* % of muscle
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus X-bred steers % of total FA
 Grass na 2.19 23.1 13.i* na 38.4* 2.86* %International monetary fund
 Grain na two.44 22.1 10.8* na 35.3* 3.85* %IMF
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 k muscle tissue
 Grass na 56.9* 508* 272.8 na 900* 2.12%* % of muscle
 Grain na 103.7* 899* 463.three na 1568* 3.61%* % of muscle
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of total intramuscular fatty reported as LSM
 Grass 0.04 1.82 22.56* 17.64* na 43.91 i.51* % of muscle
 Grain 0.05 1.96 24.26* 16.fourscore* na 44.49 ii.61* % of muscle
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers % of total FA
 Grass na ii.2 22.0 19.one na 42.eight 2.7* %IMF
 Grain na 2.0 25.0 eighteen.2 na 45.v 4.7* %IMF
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fat acid within intramuscular fat
 Grass na 1.64* 21.61* 17.74* na 49.08 1.68* % of musculus
 Grain na 2.17* 24.26* 15.77* na 47.62 3.eighteen* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant deviation (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective study. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original report.

Table ​ one reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in full fat as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consequent divergence in total SFA content between these 2 feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to exist more detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.e., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were college in grain-fed beef as compared to grass-fed contemporaries in 60% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acid (C18:0), the only saturated fatty acid with a net neutral bear on on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more than favorable SFA composition although piffling is known of how grass-finished beefiness would ultimately touch on serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beef.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has too become an important upshot to consumers. Interestingly, beefiness'due south cholesterol content is similar to other meats (beefiness 73; pork 79; lamb 85; chicken 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 g) [32], and can therefore be used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[11,33]. Studies have shown that breed, nutrition and sexual activity do not bear upon the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal muscle, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[34]. As International monetary fund levels rising, and then goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fat [24-27,thirty], particularly with respect to marbling or IMF [26,36], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would exist lower in overall cholesterol content although the data is very limited. Garcia et al (2008) report 40.iii and 45.viii grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beefiness consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs every bit compared to grass-fed beef, which include FAs such as oleic acid (C18:i cis-9), the principal MUFA in beef. A number of epidemiological studies comparing disease rates in different countries take suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and mortality rates to CVD [3,21]. Notwithstanding, grass-fed beef provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:1 t11), an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA: C18:ii c-nine, t-11), a potent anti-carcinogen that is synthesized inside the torso tissues [37]. Specific information relative to the wellness benefits of CLA and its biochemistry will be detailed later on.

The important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acid (C18:2), blastoff-linolenic acid (C18:three), described equally the essential FAs, and the long-chain fatty acids including arachidonic acrid (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5), docosanpetaenoic acrid (C22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:six) [38]. The significance of nutrition on fat acid composition is clearly demonstrated when profiles are examined past omega 6 (due north-6) and omega 3 (n-iii) families. Table ​ 2 shows no meaning change to the overall concentration of n-6 FAs between feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a higher concentrations of n-3 FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more favorable due north-6:n-three ratio. At that place are a number of studies that report positive furnishings of improved north-3 intake on CVD and other health related issues discussed in more than detail in the next section.

Table two

Comparing of mean polyunsatured fatty acid composition (expressed as mg/chiliad of fatty acid or equally a % of full lipid) betwixt grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acid
Author, publication yr, breed, treatment C18:ane t11 Vaccenic Acrid C18:2 n-half dozen Linoleic Full CLA C18:3 north-iii Linolenic C20:5n-3 EPA C22:5n-3 DPA C22:6n-3 DHA Full PUFA Total MUFA Full north-vi Total n-3 n-half dozen/due north-iii ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers thousand/100 g lipid
 Grass 1.35 12.55 5.14* 5.53* ii.xiii* 2.56* 0.twenty* 28.99* 24.69* 17.97* ten.41* one.77*
 Grain 0.92 eleven.95 two.65* 0.48* 0.47* 0.91* 0.11* 19.06* 34.99* 17.08 1.97* 8.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle g/100 g lipid
 Grass 2.95* 2.01 0.85* 0.71* 0.31 0.24* na three.41 42.5* 2.30 ane.07* ii.78*
 Grain 0.51* 2.38 0.48* 0.13* 0.xix 0.06* na 2.77 46.two* two.58 0.xix* 13.vi*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers % of total FAs
 Grass 3.22* three.41 0.72* 1.thirty* 0.52* 0.70* 0.43* 7.95 37.seven* v.00* 2.95* i.72*
 Grain 2.25* iii.93 0.58* 0.74* 0.12* 0.thirty* 0.fourteen* 9.31 40.viii* viii.05* 0.86* 10.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 g muscle tissue
 Grass na 108.8* 14.3 32.4* 24.v* 36.5* 4.2 na 930* 191.six 97.6* 1.96*
 Grain na 167.4* 16.1 14.nine* thirteen.1* 31.vi* 3.7 na 1729* 253.8 63.3* 3.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of full fat acids
 Grass na vi.56 0.87* 2.22* 0.94* 1.32* 0.17* 14.29* 56.09 9.lxxx four.70* 2.04*
 Grain na 5.22 0.72* 0.46* 0.08* 0.29* 0.05* 9.07* 55.51 seven.73 0.90* viii.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers % of total FAs
 Grass 4.2* five.4 na 1.iv* tr 0.six tr 10.31* 34.17* 7.4 2.0 3.72*
 Grain 2.eight* 4.7 na 0.vii* tr 0.4 tr 7.29* 37.83* 6.3 1.1 5.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fat acid inside intramuscular fat
 Grass na 3.29* 0.53* 1.34* 0.69* 1.04* 0.09 9.96* 40.96* na na 1.44*
 Grain na ii.84* 0.25* 0.35* 0.xxx* 0.56* 0.09 six.02* 46.36* na na 3.00*

* Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens inside each respective written report reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original study. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-3: Omega-6 fatty acid content in grass-fed beef

There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human nutrition: α-linolenic acrid (αLA), an omega-iii fatty acid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acrid. The human body cannot synthesize essential fatty acids, yet they are critical to human health; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from nutrient. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve as precursors of other important compounds. For case, αLA is the precursor for the omega-3 pathway. Also, LA is the parent fatty acid in the omega-6 pathway. Omega-iii (n-3) and omega-6 (northward-six) fatty acids are two separate distinct families, even so they are synthesized past some of the aforementioned enzymes; specifically, delta-v-desaturase and delta-6-desaturase. Excess of one family of FAs tin can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological effects [39]. Figure ​ i depicts a schematic of northward-6 and due north-3 metabolism and elongation within the body [40].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-1.jpg

Linoleic (C18:2n-half dozen) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-3) Acid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A good for you nutrition should consist of roughly i to four times more than omega-six fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids. The typical American diet tends to contain 11 to 30 times more omega -vi fatty acids than omega -3, a phenomenon that has been hypothesized as a significant gene in the ascent rate of inflammatory disorders in the United States[40]. Table ​ two shows significant differences in north-half-dozen:n-3 ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1.53 and seven.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fat acids used by the body include: α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-three, DHA). One time eaten, the body converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, albeit at depression efficiency. Studies generally concord that whole body conversion of αLA to DHA is beneath 5% in humans, the majority of these long-chain FAs are consumed in the diet [41].

The omega-3 fat acids were beginning discovered in the early 1970's when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an uncommonly low incidence of heart illness and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a diet high in fat. These early studies established fish as a rich source of n-three fatty acids. More contempo inquiry has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial office in the prevention of atherosclerosis, eye attack, depression and cancer [40,42]. In addition, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation acquired by rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human being brain has a high requirement for DHA; depression DHA levels have been linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are continued to an increased tendency for depression and suicide. Several studies have established a correlation between low levels of omega -3 fatty acids and depression. High consumption of omega-3 FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of age-related memory loss and a lower adventure of developing Alzheimer's illness [45-51].

The National Institutes of Health has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, 2.22 g/twenty-four hours of αLA and 4.44 g/24-hour interval of LA. However, the Found of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-half dozen) at 12 to 17 g and αLA (omega-iii) at one.1 to 1.half dozen g for adult women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of n-3 fatty acids, a recent fat acid intake survey indicated that red meat also serves as a pregnant source of n-3 fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the first to prove that beef consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of north-3 fatty acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [xl]. Likewise, there are a number of studies that have been conducted with livestock which report similar findings, i.east., animals that consume rations high in precursor lipids produce a meat production higher in the essential fat acids [53,54]. For example, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and likewise produced a more favorable omega-6 to omega-iii ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Table ​ 2 shows the effect of ration on polyunsaturated fatty acid composition from a number of recent studies that dissimilarity grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,30,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-3 within the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged. In fact, as the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based diet, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear style. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a higher concentration of due north-3 FAs (without effecting n-6 FA content), resulting in a more favorable n-6:due north-3 ratio.

The corporeality of total lipid (fat) found in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen as demonstrated in Tables ​ 1 and ​ 2. Fat will also vary by cut, equally non all locations of the carcass will eolith fat to the same degree. Genetics as well play a role in lipid metabolism creating meaning breed effects. Yet, the outcome of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fat acid composition.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acid (TVA) in grass-fed beef

Conjugated linoleic acids brand up a group of polyunsaturated FAs found in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist equally a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer (also referred to as rumenic acrid or RA) accounts for upwardly to eighty-90% of the total CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from two sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fat acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,60].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA by an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven activity, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more favorable rumen environment for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may help to explicate the credible differences in CLA content betwixt grain and grass-finished meat products (come across Table ​ ii). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:ane TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increase in CLA synthesis equally the TVA content of the diet increased in human subjects [63]. The charge per unit of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from 5 to 12% in rodents to xix to 30% in humans[64]. True dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native 9cxit-C18:two (bodily CLA) as well as the 11t-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Effigy ​ 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-2.jpg

De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:one vaccenic acrid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9t11 and TVA within the lipid fraction of beef products can be accomplished through diets rich in grass and lush green forages. While precursors tin can exist institute in both grains and lush light-green forages, grass-fed ruminant species take been shown to produce 2 to 3 times more than CLA than ruminants fed in confinement on loftier grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (come across Tabular array ​ ii).

The impact of feeding practices becomes even more evident in light of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beef. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beefiness produced from a 73% barley grain diet is 10t-18:1 (2.13% of total lipid) rather than 11t-xviii:1 (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not particularly favorable considering the data that would back up a negative impact of 10t-eighteen:1 on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the by two decades numerous studies have shown significant health benefits attributable to the deportment of CLA, as demonstrated past experimental animal models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [70-72]. Conjugated linoleic acrid has also been reported to modulate body limerick by reducing the aggregating of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and at present humans [73-76]. These changes in trunk composition occur at ultra high doses of CLA, dosages that can just be attained through synthetic supplementation that may also produce ill side-effects, such as gastrointestinal upset, adverse changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver office [77-81]. A number of excellent reviews on CLA and human wellness can exist found in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to exist established for CLA. It has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/day is enough to testify positive effects in the reduction of breast cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more conservative estimate stating that 3 g/day CLA is required to promote human health benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/day for men and 441 mg/twenty-four hours for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Obviously, all these values stand for rough estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated animal data. What is clear is that we as a population practice not consume plenty CLA in our diets to take a pregnant touch on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports signal that Americans consume between 150 to 200 mg/day, Germans consumer slightly more between 300 to 400 mg/twenty-four hours[87], and the Australians seem to exist closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to 1000 mg/solar day co-ordinate to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family unit of compounds that are synthesized by college plants as natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellow, orangish and red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on loftier forage rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and body fatty in a mode that has yet to be fully elucidated. Cattle produced under extensive grass-based production systems more often than not take carcass fat which is more yellow than their concentrate-fed counterparts caused by carotenoids from the lush dark-green forages. Although yellow carcass fat is negatively regarded in many countries around the world, it is also associated with a healthier fatty acrid contour and a college antioxidant content [89].

Found species, harvest methods, and flavor, all have significant impacts on the carotenoid content of forage. In the process of making silage, haylage or hay, as much equally 80% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [xc]. Further, meaning seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of plant growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a disquisitional fatty-soluble vitamin that is important for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, prison cell division, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the eyes and likewise the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a barrier to bacterial and viral infection [fifteen,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune office past supporting the production and function of white blood cells [12,13].

The current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to 5,000 IU for men and ii,300 to iv,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Note: DRI as reported by the Constitute of Medicine for non-pregnant/not-lactating adult females is 700 μg/day and males is 900 μg/twenty-four hours or 2,300 - 3,000 I U (bold conversion of 3.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Assart) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Plant of Medicine suggests consuming 3 mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal function and a lowered hazard of chronic diseases (NIH: Role of Dietary Supplements).

The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who found pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into muscle tissues as compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/g and 0.06 μg/k for beef from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increase in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beef over the grain-fed contemporaries. Similar data has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses as compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (meet Table ​ 3)

Tabular array iii

Comparison of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beefiness from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

β-carotene
Author, twelvemonth, animate being form Grass-fed (ug/g tissue) Grain-fed (ug/chiliad tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers 0.74* 0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers 0.45* 0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 0.16* 0.01*

* Indicates a significant deviation (at least P < 0.05) betwixt feeding regimens was reported within each respective study.

Review of Vitamin Eastward/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beef

Vitamin East is also a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in eight dissimilar isoforms with powerful antioxidant activity, the near active being α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the terminal meat product than cattle fed loftier concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (see Table ​ 4).

Table 4

Comparing of mean α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

α-tocopherol
Author, year, animal form Grass-fed (ug/one thousand tissue) Grain-fed (ug/k tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle iv.07* 0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers 3.08* one.l*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers two.1* 0.8*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers 4.six* 2.ii*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers 3.91* ii.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 4.5* 1.viii*

* Indicates a significant deviation (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective report.

Antioxidants such as vitamin Due east protect cells against the effects of gratis radicals. Free radicals are potentially dissentious by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Preliminary inquiry shows vitamin E supplementation may help forestall or delay coronary center disease [102-105]. Vitamin E may also block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. Information technology may likewise protect against the development of cancers by enhancing allowed part [106]. In add-on to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that plant lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was better in patients who regularly used vitamin Eastward [107,108]. The electric current recommended intake of vitamin E is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (constructed source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to 15 milligrams by weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin Due east) plant in grain-fed beef ranged between 0.75 to ii.92 μg/g of musculus whereas pasture-fed beefiness ranges from 2.1 to 7.73 μg/g of tissue depending on the type of fodder made bachelor to the animals (Table ​ four). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels three-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beef well within range of the musculus α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beef (iii to iv μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) acts post-mortem to delay oxidative deterioration of the meat; a procedure by which myoglobin is converted into brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, dark-brown appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beef were straight compared, the vivid red color associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail display in the grass-fed grouping, fifty-fifty thought the grass-fed meat contains a college concentration of more oxidizable n-3 PUFA. The authors concluded that the antioxidants in grass probably acquired higher tissue levels of vitamin E in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and better color retention despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beef

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new protein identified in foods. It is a tripeptide composed of cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine and functions as an antioxidant primarily as a component of the enzyme organization containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the cell, GT has the adequacy of quenching complimentary radicals (like hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and prevent impairment to DNA. GT and its associated enzymes are found in near all constitute and animal tissue and is readily absorbed in the modest intestine[112].

Although our cognition of GT content in foods is still somewhat limited, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very little GT (< three.3 mg/100 g). In dissimilarity, fresh vegetables (e.g., asparagus 28.three mg/100 k) and freshly cooked meats, such as ham and beef (23.iii mg/100 g and 17.5 mg/100 g, respectively), are loftier in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush green forages, grass-fed beef is particularly high in GT equally compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a meaning increase in GT molar concentrations in grass-fed beef [114]. In add-on, grass-fed samples were also higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activeness than beefiness from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together as powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and True cat then decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to H2O and O2. Grass just diets improve the oxidative enzyme concentration in beef, protecting the muscle lipids against oxidation as well equally providing the beefiness consumer with an additional source of antioxidant compounds.

Problems related to flavor and palatability of grass-fed beef

Maintaining the more favorable lipid profile in grass-fed beef requires a high percentage of lush fresh forage or grass in the ration. The higher the concentration of fresh green forages, the higher the αLA precursor that volition be available for CLA and n-3 synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages take ten to 12 times more C18:3 than cereal grains [116]. Dried or cured forages, such every bit hay, will accept a slightly lower amount of precursor for CLA and n-iii synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains volition cause a significant change in the FA profile and antioxidant content within thirty days of transition [57].

Because grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beef, aroma and season will too be affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the final product. In a study comparison the flavour compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beef contained higher concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll telephone call phyt-i-ene and phyt-two-ene, that changed both the flavor and olfactory property of the cooked product [117]. Others accept identified a "green" olfactory property from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "green" aroma, grain-fed beef was described as possessing a "soapy" aroma, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is establish in high concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beef consumers can expect a different season and scent to their steaks as they melt on the grill. Likewise, because of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking time will be reduced. For an exhaustive await at the effect of meat compounds on flavor, see Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beef has historically been less well accepted in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For example, in a study where British lambs fed grass and Castilian lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed by British and Spanish sense of taste panels, both found the British lamb to have a higher odor and flavor intensity. However, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish panel much preferred the Spanish fed lamb [120]. Likewise, the U.South. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, gustation panels and consumers who are more familiar with the gustation of corn-fed beef seem to prefer it as well [16]. An private unremarkably comes to prefer the foods they grew up eating, making consumer sensory panels more of an fine art than science [36]. Trained gustation panels, i.eastward., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beefiness less palatable than grain-fed beefiness in flavor and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Inquiry spanning iii decades supports the statement that grass-fed beef (on a grand/1000 fat basis), has a more desirable SFA lipid profile (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) as compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is as well higher in full CLA (C18:2) isomers, TVA (C18:i t11) and n-iii FAs on a g/grand fat basis. This results in a better n-6:n-3 ratio that is preferred past the nutritional community. Grass-fed beef is also college in precursors for Vitamin A and E and cancer fighting antioxidants such as GT and SOD action as compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beefiness tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fat consumption. Considering of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beefiness likewise possesses a distinct grass season and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. To maximize the favorable lipid profile and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should be finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may achieve similar intakes of both north-iii and CLA through consumption of college fatty portions with higher overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies have shown that today's lean beefiness, regardless of feeding strategy, tin exist used interchangeably with fish or skinless craven to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acid; SFA: saturated fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acrid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acrid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acrid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed most of the primary writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the manufactures according to category, completed some of the chief writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served every bit editor for the manuscript. All authors read and approved the concluding manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to admit Grace Berryhill for her assistance with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846864/